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In both cases, quantitative interpretations of warm water upwelling patterns are hampered by the lack of understanding of how the signal propagates from the sediment–water interface through the water column to the water surface–atmosphere interface and which perturbations and signal losses occur along this pathway. On the other hand, it can be related to thermal pollution caused by industries such as electric power plants, which use water and discharge heated water into lakes and streams (Hung, Eldridge, Taricska, & Li, 2005 Shuster, 1986). On the one hand, upwelling of warm water in cold lakes can be caused by natural processes such as GW flow across the lake bed into the cold lake water body during winter conditions (LGD Lewandowski, Meinikmann, Ruhtz, Pöschke, & Kirillin, 2013) or thermal springs in volcanic lakes (Cardenas et al., 2012). In the present manuscript, we use the term upwelling solely for upward transport processes in the water column this definition is adopted from limnophysics. Upwards directed GW flow is sometimes called upwelling, especially in the context of hyporheic zones, where commonly both upwelling and downwelling occur along river reaches. Lacustrine groundwater discharge (LGD), that is, the discharge of groundwater (GW) into lakes, can substantially impact ecosystem characteristics and functions (Baker et al., 2014 Ridgway & Blanchfield, 1998 Warren, Sebestyen, Josephson, Lepak, & Kraft, 2005). The experiments supported the benchmarking of scale dependencies and robustness of FO-DTS applications for measuring upwelling into aquatic environments and revealed that weather conditions can have important impacts on the detection of upwelling at water surface–atmosphere interfaces at larger scales. Aims are (a) to test whether the positive buoyancy of relatively warm groundwater imported by LGD into shallow water bodies allows detection of LGD at the lake's water surface–atmosphere interface by FO-DTS, (b) to analyse the propagation of the temperature signal from the sediment-water interface through the water column, and (c) to learn more about detectability of the signal under different discharge rates and weather conditions. Four layers (20, 40, 60, and 80 cm above the sediment) of the 82 cm deep mesocosm were equipped with FO-DTS for tracing thermal patterns in the mesocosm. Water within this mesocosm ranged from 4.0 to 7.4 ☌. Under winter conditions, water with temperatures of 14 to 16 ☌ was discharged at the bottom of a 10 × 2.8-m mesocosm. In the present study, LGD was simulated in a mesocosm experiment. So far, it is not clear if how and under which conditions the LGD signal propagates through the water column to the water surface–atmosphere interface, and what perturbations and signal losses occur along this pathway.
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Fibre optic distributed temperature sensing (FO-DTS) has been successfully used to locate groundwater discharge into lakes and rivers at the sediment–water interface, but locating groundwater discharge would be easier if it could be detected from the more accessible water surface. Lacustrine groundwater discharge (LGD) can substantially impact ecosystem characteristics and functions.